Experimental science By George M Hopkins - elementary, practical and experimental physics

Experimental science By George M Hopkins - elementary, practical and experimental physics
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CHAPTER I.—PROPERTIES OF BODIES.
PAGES
Extension and Impenetrability—Cotton and Alcohol Experiments—Solution of Sugar in Water—Reduction of Volume of Alcohol and
Water Mixture—Mixture of Sulphuric Acid and Water—Divisibility
—Example of Extreme Divisibility—Porosity—Physical and Sensible Pores—Porosity of Wocod—Mercurial Shower—Porosity in
Nature — Porosity in the Arts — Compressibility — Pneumatic
Syringe—Elasticity—Gases and Liquids Perfectly Elastic—Elasticity of Flexure—Elasticity of Torsion—Experiment showing
the Blasticity-ofe Glass. .wemen te nosectes + toca e teen sincrende ore SEL tO:
CHAPTER II.—REST, MOTION, AND FORCE,
When a Body is at Rest—All Bodies continually changing Position—
Absolute Rest Possible—Inertia—Force—Matter Incapable of
changing from Rest to Motion, or the Reverse—Equalizing Effect of
Fly Wheels—Persistent Rotation due to Inertia—Acticn of Projectiles, Hammers, Drop Presses and the Hydraulic Ram, due to
Inertia—Inertia Locomotive—Friction due to Roughnesses—The
Effect of a Lubricant—Silding Friction—Rolling Friction—Roller
and Ball Bearings—Centrifugal Force—Centrifugal Railway—Normal Path of a Moving Body a Straight Line—Spiral Railway—
Effect of Centrifugal Force on Air—Choral Top—Effect of Centrifugal Force on Liquids—The Glass Top—Effect of Centrifugal
Force on Liquids of Different Densities contained in the Same
Vessel—A_ Scientific Top—Persistence in maintaining Plane of
Rotation—Gyroscopic Action—Examples of Centrifugal Action—
Oblate Spheroid—Centrifugal Hero’s Fountain… ……++….+– 8 to 18
CHAPTER III.—THE GYROSCOPE.
Toy Gyroscope-—A Large Gyroscope—Gyroscope with Friction Driving
Gear—Pneumatic Gyroscopes—Electrical Gyroscope—Steam Gyroscope—Gyroscopes for showing the Rotation of the Earth—Equatorially Mounted Electrical Indicator—Bursting of guts Wheels by
Gyroscopic Action—Flexible Fly Wheel……….-. aeetrere Wate +eee1Q to 37
CHAPTER IV.—FALLING BODIES—INCLINED
PLANE—THE PENDULUM.
In a Vacuum All Bodies fall with Equal Rapidity—Effect of Resistance
on Falling Bodies—Water Hammer—Swiftest Descent Apparatus
CONTENTS.
—Inclined Plane—Concave Circular Curve—Cycloidal Curve—
Isochronal Curve—Method of describing the Cycloiu—Dropped
and Projected Balls—Gun for dropping and projecting Balls—Oscillating and Conical Pendulums—Variations in Length of Seconds
Pendulum at Different Places—Galileo’s Discovery—Isochronism
of the Pendulum—Length of Pendvlum–Foucault’s Experiment
showing the Rotation of the Earth—Pendulum with Audible Beats
—Kater’s Reversible Pendulum—Measurement of Time by the
Pendulum—Huyghens’ Invention—Torsion Pendulum—Hooke’s
PAGES
Invention—The Balance—Fiying Pendulum……… bi Sip.o oe 38tO55
CHAPTER V.—MOLECULAR ACTIONS.
Cohesion—A Demonstration of Cohesion—Strain—Prince Rupert’s
Drops—Bologna Flask—The Breaking of Lamp Chimneys and
Water Gauge Tubes—Adhesion—Surface Tension—Surface Tension
exhibited in Water Drops— Oil Globule suspended in Equilibrium—Capillarity—Capillary Elevation and Depression—Designs
on Wire Cloth—Absorption of Gases—Absorption of Carbonic
Acid by Charcoal—Preparation of Carbonic Acid Gas—Diffusion
of Gases—Endosmose—Exosmose—Simple Way of showing the
Diffusion of Gases—Pressure by Endosmose—Vacuum by Exosmose—The Law governing the Diffusion of Gases—EndosMOINClELe rec cte tases eiceretelaseislelele tees eierscrerete cinta setemce’e Agent . 50to7E
CHAPTER VI—Liquips—PRESSURE EXERTED
BY LIQUIDS.
Pascal’s Law of the Pressures of Liquids—Demonstration of Pascal’s
Law—Pascal’s Experiment—Equilibrium in Communicating Vessels—Principle of the Hydraulic Press—Hypothetical Hydraulic
Press—Simple Hydraulic Press—Lateral Pressure—Rectilinear and
Rotary Motion produced by Reaction-—Hydraulic Ram—Superposition of Liquids of Different Densities—Vial of Four Liquids—
Effect of Liquids of Different Densities—Cartesian Diver…… -.72t0 84
CHAPTER VII.—GASEs.
Gases are Elastic Fluids—Expansion of Gases—The Air in a State of
Equilibrium—Expansibility of Air—Dilatation of Balloon in a
Vacuum—Weighing of Gases—Wheel operated by Gas—Determination of the Weight of Air—Hand Glass—Effects of Air Pressure
—Crushing Force of the Atmosphere—The Weight lifted by the
Air Pressure—The Barometer—Mercurial Column supported by
Atmospheric Pressure—Torricelli’s Experiment—Pascal’s Experiment—Simple Air Pump—Testing the Air Pump—Water boiling
in Vacuo—Rarefied Air a Poor Conductor of Sound—Bell in
Vacuo-—Destruction of Life by Removal of Air—Desiccation by
Removal of Air—The Ball Experiment—Card Experiment—Atom-
CONTENTS, vii
re F PAGES izing Petroleum Burner—Aspirators for Laboratory Use—Bunsen Filter Pump—Elongation of Discharge Pipe of Bunsen Filter Pump necessary to Best Effects—Chapman’s Metallic Aspirator—
Principle of the Giffard Injector—Experiment with the Aspirator
—Exhausting a Geissler Tube—Blast produced by the Aspirator—
Plate and Receiver for Aspirator—Mouth Vacuum Apparatus— Hero’s Fountain—Wirtz’s Pump—Inertia of Air—The Flight of Birds
—The Operation of Windmills and Propulsion of Sailing Vessels
due to Inertia of Air—Aerial Top—-The Fly Wheel—Mechanical
Bird—The Boomerang—Vortex Rings…………..-6. Aes cteahden 85 to 115
CHAPTER VIII.—Sounp.
Toys as Experimental Apparatus—Sound a Sensation of the Ear—Sound
due to Irregular Vibrations—Musical Sounds due to Rapid and Uniform Vibrations—The Cricket or Rattle—The Buzz as Savart’s Wheel
—Vibrating Rods—Tranverse Vibration of Rods—The Zylophone—
Tuning the Zylophone—The Metallophone—The Musical Box a
Reed Instrument—Mouth Organ or Harmonica an Example of a
Reed Instrument—Tuning Reed Instruments—The Bugle—Longitudinal Vibrations of Rods—Of a Steel Rod—Longitudinal Vibrations of Wooden Rods—Marloye’s Harp—Stopped Pipe—Pandean
Pipes—Open Pipes—Flageolet—Ocorina—Stringed Instruments—
Lateral Vibrations of Strings—Zither—Division of Strings into Vibrating Segments—Vibrations of Strings by Sympathy—Conduction of Sound—The String Telephone—Harmonic Vibrations—
Cumulative Effects of Harmonic Vibrations—Vibration of Railroad
Bridges—Slow Vibratory Period of the East River Bridge—The
Breaking of an Iron Girder by Bombardment of Pith Balls—Steel
Bar vibrated by Drops of Water—By Magnetic Impuises—Sound
Recorder—Tracings of the Motion of a Telephone Diaphragm—Vibrating Flames— Simple Device for showing Vibrating Flames—The
Speaking Flame—Annular Burner for producing Vibrating Flames
—Manometric Flames—Composition of Vibrations—Optical Metliod
of studying Sonorous Vibrations—Apparatus for producing Lissajous’ Figures-—Re-enforcement of Sound—Resonance studied by
Simple Apparatus—Selective Power of a Resonant Vessel—Bell and
Resonator—Mouth used as a Resonator—Experiment with the
Jew’s Harp—Tuning Forks and Resonant Tubes— Musical Flames—
Apparatus for the Production of Sounding Flames—Analyzing Vibrating Flames by a Revolving Mirror—A Simple Phonograph—The
Perfected Phonograph— Edison’s New Phonograph—Edison listening to the First Phonogram from England—The Phonographic
Record—Reflection and Concentration of Sound—Adjustable Sound
Reflector—Reflection of Light and Sound—Trevelyan Rocker—Refraction of Sound—Sound Lens—The Sensitive Flame—Apparatus
for producing Gas Pressure for Sensitive Flame—Sensitive Flame
vill CONTENTS.
PAGES
with Gas at the Ordinary Pressure—Determining Speed by Resonance—Siren for measuring Velocities………. Reeintcrehe ctovete Pe LO tO 172
CHAPTER IX.—EXPERIMENTS WITH THE
SCIENTIFIC TOP.
Siren applied to the Top—Savart’s Wheel—Gyrating Perforated Disk
-—Gyrating Disk with Polished Beads—Chameleon Top—Changes
of Hue by the Shifting of the Cover Disk— Phantom Forms—Revolving Mirror—Koenig’s Manometric Flames……..-se+seee0+++ 173 to 180:
CHAPTER X.—HEAT.
Heat the Manifestation ef Rapid Vibratory Motion of Molecules—A
Heated Mass can impart Vibratory Motion to Ether—Heat partially
or wholly balances Mvlecular Attraction—Expansion—A Metallic
Thermometer—Simple Thermostat—Air Thermometer—Pulse Glass
—Thermoscopic Balance—Electric Meter or the Principle of the
Thermoscopic Balance—Wollaston’s Cryopborus—Freezing by
Rapid Evaporation—The Radiometer—Tyndall’s Experiment on
Radiant Heat—Action of Radiant Heat on Different Gases—Reflection and Concentration of Heat—Conduction of Heat—Conductivity
of Different Metals—Heat due to Friction—Heat due to Pressure
and Compression—Pneumatic Syringe—Force of Steam—Candle
Bomb—Steam Engine—Fifty Cent Steam Engine—Ascensional
Power of Heated Air—Hot Air Motor—Ilygrometry—Toy Hygroscope—Sensitive Leaf—Chemical Thermoscope—Hydroscopic and
Ibu MInOUSPROSEScn. ae wane ate EGto GE Op SO eoegoe ess LOL Ed eQ9
CHAPTER XI.—LIGHT.
Theories of Light—The Emission Theory—Undulatory Theory—Comparison of Sound and Light Waves—Sound propagated by Compression and Rarefaction—Vibrations of Light at Right Angles with its Line of Progression—Ether—Reflection—Refraction-—Huyghens?
Explanation of Refraction—Prisms—Course of Light through a Prism—Polyprism—Lenses—Hypothetical Lens—Forms of Lenses
—Converging or Magnifying Lenses—Principal Focus of a Convex Lens—Concave Lens—Converging Rays with a Convex Lens—Diverging Rays with a Concave Lens—Real and Diminished Image—
Real and Magnified Image—Virtual Image with Convex Lens— Water Bulb Magnifier—Mirrors—A Convex Cylindrical Mirror— Concave Cylindrical Mirror—Caustics—Convex Spherical Mirror— Concave Spherical Mirror—Phantom Bouquet—Multiple Reflection —The Kaleidoscope—Analysis and Synthesis of Light—Rocking Prism—The Spectrum—Simple Method of producing the Spectrum —Apparatus for producing the Spectrum—Chromatrope—The
Blending of Surface Colors—Persistence of Vision—Zoetrope—Ir- radiation—Examples of Irradiation—Intensity of Light—The Light
CONTENTS. ix
PAGES of the Sun—The Light of the Moon—Measurement of Light—Photometer—Optical Illusions—lIllusiop from Engineering Drawings—
Apparent Deviation by Oblique Lines—Apparent Displacement of a
Single Oblique Line—Curious Optical Illusions—Prof. Thompson’s
Optical Illusions—Webster’s Optical Illusions—Rapieff’s Optical
TUTE SIO TS ea ie Shoe cae cree pose hd ones Oe ee 8 2c0 to 232
CHAPTER XII.—POLARIZED LIGHT.
Glass, Single Refracting—Double Refracting Bodies—Iceland Spar—The
Investigation of Newton on the Properties of Light—-Course of Light
through Iceland Spar—Nicol’s Prism the Most Perfect Instrument
for Polarizing—Tourmaline Crystals—Polarization by Reflection and
Refraction—Angle of Polarizing for Glass—Stewart’s Explanation
of Polarized Light by Reflection—Arrangement of Polarizer and
Analyzer—Simple Experiment in Polarized Light—Polarizing by Refilectionfrom Blackened Glass—Anaiyzing by Bundle of Glass Plates
—Strained Glass—Glass strained by Pressure—Glass strained by
Heat—Polarizing and analyzing with a Single Bundle of Plates—
Norremberg Doubler—Double Polarization with a Single Glass
Plate—Mica Objects for the Polariscope—Mica Semi-cylinder— Mica
Semi-cylinders crossed —Mica Cone—Maltese Cross—Mica Wheel
—Star, Fan, and Crossed Bars of Mica—Polariscopes—Simple Norremberg Doubler—Half and Quarter Wave Films—Wide-angled
Crystals — Hoffman’s Improvement— Polariscope for exhibiting
Wide-angled Crystals—Examination of Various Crystals with the
Polariscope —Tourmaline Tongs—The Polariscope a Test for Quartz
Lenses—Polariscope for Large Objects—Examination of Glassware,
etc., by Polariscope—Simple Polariscope for Microscopic Objects—
Construction of Simple Polarizer and Analyzer-—Method of holding
Cover Glasses for cleaning—Practical Applications of the Polariscope—Wheatstone’s Polar Clock—Suggestions in Decorative Art—
Various Crystals and Combinations of Crystals…… aseuCtKAS «+233 to 277
CHAPTER XIII.—MICROSCOPY.
Microscopic Objects—Microscopy in Chemistry and Mineralogy—The
Microscope a Necessity to the Physicist—Inexpensive Microscope—
Water Lens Microscope—Water Lens Microscope with Stand—
Compound Microscope—Accessories for the Compound Microscope — Diaphragm and Fine Adjustment—Substitute for the Revolving Table—Illumination of Microscopic Objects—A Modern Microscope—Light Modifier—Iris Diaphragm—Sub-stage Condenser—
Gathering Microscopic Objects—Various Books on Microscopy—
Implements for gathering Microscopic Objects—Various Microscopic Objects—Transferring Objects to the Slide—Compressor—
Microscopic Examination of Ciliated Objects by Intermittent Light
—-Light Interrupter for the Microscope —Circulation in Animal and
Vegetable Tissues—Simple Frog Plate—Circulation of Blood ina
X CONTENTS.
PAGES
Fish’s Tail—Quick Method of Mounting Dry Objects—Dr. Stiles’
Wax Cell—Microscopic Examination of the Phenomenon of Colors
in Thin Plates—Newton’s Rings for Microscopic Examination—
Microscopic Examination of Soap Films—Of Mica Plates—Of
Vibrating Rods—-Simple Polariscope tor the Microscope—Obiects
forthe s PolansCOMe ya aro us omtscler seer tes etek asia Podsietortep i> ole pieiniote es 278 to 308
CHAPTER XIV.—THE TELESCOPE.
Inexpensive Telescope—Terrestrial and Celestial Eyepiece for the Telescope—Collimation—Objects to be examined by the Telescope—
Simple Telescope Stand—Compact Telescope….. alec tistetadelele ess SOQILOIST 7.
CHAPTER XV.—PHOTOGRAPHY.
Manipulative Skill in Photography—Dry Plates—The Lens—The Camera
Box—The Plate Holder—Focusing Cloth -Exposures—Management
of a Camera—Timing the Exposure—Copying—Development of the
Plate—Treatment for Overexposure—For Underexposure—Beach’s
Pyro-Potash Developer—Washing and Clearing or Fixing—The
Fixing Solution—Hydrochinon Developer—Lantern Slides-—Photograpbic Printing—Toning—Solution for Black Tones—Solution for
Brown Tones—Fixing Bath—Mounting Prints—A Pocket Camera
—Simple Photographic and Photo-Micrographic Apparatus—
Arrangement of Microscope and Camera for Photo-Micrography—
Daguerreotypy—The Invention of Daguerre—Scouring the Plate—
Buffing the Plate —Sensitizing—The Dark Room—The Operating
Room—Developing the Plate—Fixing—Gilding or Toning—Mountish conadioe do WeOUoWdcd SMa Tay Siete vals Whe carerantere AS HONOR BOs Hiteml Kote (os
CHAPTER XVI.—MAGNETISM.
Magnetism bv Induction from the Earth—By Torsion—Magnetization of
Straight and U-shaped Bars—Motion produced by a Permanent
Magnet–Effect of the Armature—Effect of Permanent Magnet on a
Bar magnetized by Induction—Neutralizing Effect of an Opposing
Pole—Neutral Point between Unlike Poles—-Consequent Pole—
Formation of Magnetic Curves—Magnetic Curves in Relief—Arborescent Magnetic Figures—Floating Magnets—Mayer’s Floating
Needles—Rolling Armature—Magnetic Top…….. Arie seb dora s 347 to 358
CHAPTER XVII—FRICTIONAL ELECTRICITY.
Action of Frictional Electricity on Pith Balls—Electric Pendulum—Electroscope—Masked Electricity–Ano-Kato—Mutual Repulsion of
Electrified Threads—Self-luminous Buoy—Electrical Machines—
Electrophorus—Winter’s Electrical Machine—Modified Wimshurst
Electrical Machine—Attachment of Leyden Jar—Distribution of
Electricity on the Wimshurst Plates—Experiments with the Induction Machine—Various Phases of the Electrical Discharge—Length-
CONTENTS. . xi
; : PAGES ening the Spark—Diversion of the Discharge by Moisture—Glow at
the Positive Collector—Glow at the Negative Collector—Discharge
through a Geissler Tube—Franklin’’s Plate—Leyden Jar—Measuring Jar—Disruptive Effect of the Discharge—Electrical Chime—
Electric Fly—Fly on Inclined Plane—Jointed and Universal Dischargers—Insulating Stool—Insulated Sphere—Cylindrical Conductor–Gas Pistol—Electric Mortar—Dancing Pith Balls—GasSlot 5 Cascade— Pith Ball lectroscope senescence eee 359 to 30%
CHAPTER XVIII.—DyNAmic ELECTRICITY.
Generator of the Electric Current— Experimental Battery and Galvanometer—Polarization—Single-Fluid Batteries—Smee’s Battery—Grenet Battery—Simple Plunge Battery—Large Plunge Battery—Forming the Lining for Battery Cells—Chloride of Silver Cell—Leclanche
Battery—Dr. Gassner’s Dry Battery—Caustic Potash Battery—TwoFluid Batteries—Daniell Battery —Gravity—Grove—Chromic Acid—
The Fuller Cell—Mechanical Depolarization of Electrodes—A pplication of Air Jetsto Depolarization—Mechanical Agitator for Depolarizing—Secondary Battery—Roughening the Plate—Method of Connecting the Plates—Forming the Cell—Thermo-Electric Battery—
Electrical Units—Arrangement of Battery Cells—Galvanometers—-
Deprez-D’Arsonval Galvanometer—Arrangement of Galvanometer,
Lamp, and Scale—Tangent Galvanometer-—Circuit of the Tangent
Galvanometer—Electrical Measurements—Wheatstone’s Bridge—
Resistance Box Connections—Bridge Key—Branch Circuits—J oint
Resistance of Branch Circuits—Expansion Voltmeter— Ammeter—
Recording Voltmeter—Electro-Magnets— Magnet for Experimentation—Magnet and Switch—Inexpensive Magnet—Form for the Coils
—Foucault’s Experiment—Experiments with the Electro-Magnet—
Diamagnetism—Experiments illustrating the Principle of the Dynamo—Magnetization of a Steel Bar—Magneto-electric Induction—
Magnetic Induction—Induced Currents from Induced Magnetism—
Simple Current Generator—Simple Motor—Fifty Cent Electric
Motor—Gramme Machine for JDlustration—Armature and Magnetic Fluid—Drum Armature—Magneto Electric Machines—Principle of the Bell Telephone—Magnetic Key—Polarized Bells—
Annunciator—Hand Power Dynamo—Details of Construction of
Hand Power Dynamo—Electro-plating Dynamo—Connections of
Plating Dynamo—Simple Electric Motor—Details of Construction of
Simple Electric Motor—Circuit of the Simple Electric Motor—Cast
Tron Magnnet…….. secs ec cena sweet esrecereseccioeceecies 392 to 509
CHAPTER XIX.—QUARTER-HORSE POWER ELECTRIC
MorTor.
Quarter-Horse Power Electric Motor—Field Magnet—Armature Core
—The Winding—The Commutator—The Journal Box—Starting
Box—Motor as a Dynamo—Table of Tangents……….. apaunk 510 to 523